Development
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WHAT IS DEVELOPMENT?
Development is a wide-ranging concept, but is generally believed to mean an improvement in the quality of life. Development occurs when there are improvements to the individual factors which make up the quality of life.
DEVELOPMENT INDICATORS
To take into account the differences in population GNP per capita is often used. Per capita figures allow for a better comparison between countries, especially countries whose populations are very different. However, GNP per capita does not take into account the variations in cost of living, therefore the most effective data is GNP per capita at purchasing power parity (PPP), which takes into account the cost of living. When considering GNP the development gap between the wealthiest and poorest countries is huge, however does little to tell you about the distribution of wealth within countries.
LITERACY
Education is undoubtedly the key to socio-economic development and as such has always been regarded as a very important indicator of development. Adult literacy rates is one of the main indicators used to show differences in educational standards between countries. The global adult literacy rate is around 84%, but many African nations have values below 50%. A low adult literacy rate is an obstacle to development, so much so that the World Bank has identified female literacy as one of the most fundamental achievements for a developing nation to attain.
LIFE EXPECTANCY
This is viewed as a very important measure of development as it is seen as the cumulation of all the factors contributing to the quality of life in a country. The main influences on life expectancy are:
INFANT MORTALITY
This is seen as one of the most sensitive indicators of socio-economic progress. There are dramatic differences in infant mortality rates around the world despite public health knowledge being widely available. Although rates have fallen rapidly in recent decades there is still a wide disparity between richer and poorer countries.
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT INDEX
In 1990 the Human Development Index (HDI) was developed by the UN as measure of development. It is a composite index taking into consideration four development indicators:
LITERACY
Education is undoubtedly the key to socio-economic development and as such has always been regarded as a very important indicator of development. Adult literacy rates is one of the main indicators used to show differences in educational standards between countries. The global adult literacy rate is around 84%, but many African nations have values below 50%. A low adult literacy rate is an obstacle to development, so much so that the World Bank has identified female literacy as one of the most fundamental achievements for a developing nation to attain.
LIFE EXPECTANCY
This is viewed as a very important measure of development as it is seen as the cumulation of all the factors contributing to the quality of life in a country. The main influences on life expectancy are:
- incidence of disease
- physical environmental conditions
- human environmental conditions
- personal lifestyle
INFANT MORTALITY
This is seen as one of the most sensitive indicators of socio-economic progress. There are dramatic differences in infant mortality rates around the world despite public health knowledge being widely available. Although rates have fallen rapidly in recent decades there is still a wide disparity between richer and poorer countries.
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT INDEX
In 1990 the Human Development Index (HDI) was developed by the UN as measure of development. It is a composite index taking into consideration four development indicators:
- life expectancy at birth
- mean years of schooling for adults aged 25 years
- expected years of schooling for children of school entering age
- GNI per capita (PPP$)
- Very high human development
- High human development
- Medium human development
- Low human development
Stages of Development
Many people viewed development as a two step process with countries moving from being classified as developing to developed. However, this is a very simplistic approach and not very accurate. In 1968 the UNCTAD introduced the term least developed countries (LDCs) to cover those nations who have major economic, institutional and human resource problems, which are often exacerbated by geographical problems, such as poor climate.Newly industrialised countries (NICs) are nations which have undergone rapid and successful industrialisation since the 1960s, taking a step up the development ladder. The first NICs were the Asian Tigers (Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan and Hong Kong).
Explaining the development gap
There is much debate as to the causes of the development gap with studies showing that it is down to a number of factors.
- PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY - landlocked countries or small islands have a disadvantage, as do those countries with a tropical climate or a lack of natural resources.
- ECONOMIC POLICIES - open economies have benefitted from foreign investment and developed faster, as have those countries with a stable government and high quality institutions
- DEMOGRAPHY - highest rates of development have been experienced by those nations where birth rate has declined the most
EXPLAINING INEQUALITIES WITHIN COUNTRIES
There is almost as much inequality within countries as there is between countries. South America and Southern Africa are two regions with very high income inequality. In China the income gap between urban residents and rural residents is currently at its greatest as a result of the rising rate of agricultural unemployment. This is becoming a very sensitive issue within China as more people feel they are being left behind as China’s economy continues to grow.
The model of cumulative causation provides some explanation for regional disparities. There are three stages of regional disparity:
FACTORS AFFECTING INEQUALITIES WITHIN COUNTRIES
The model of cumulative causation provides some explanation for regional disparities. There are three stages of regional disparity:
- Pre-industrial stage when regional differences are at their lowest
- Period of rapid economic growth and increasing regional economic divergence
- Stage of regional economic convergence where wealth spreads to other parts of the country
FACTORS AFFECTING INEQUALITIES WITHIN COUNTRIES
- RESIDENCE - Urban areas generally attract greater levels of investment, which in turn results in higher per capita incomes. Within urban areas themselves there can be extreme inequality with high income areas existing side by side with low income areas.
- ETHNICITY - Some ethnic groups have income levels significantly below the dominant groups within a country. This is often a result of discrimination, limiting the amount of economic and social opportunities on offer.
- EMPLOYMENT - The percentage of formal and informal employment can have dramatic impacts on the incomes of individuals. Formal jobs are often associated with higher incomes and greater benefits, such as holiday and sick pay.
- EDUCATION - Those with access to higher levels of education usually game better-paid employment. In developing countries there is a clear correlation between education levels and family size, with those in large families experiencing the least amount of education.
- LAND OWNERSHIP - The greatest developmental disparities occur in countries and regions with the largest inequalities in land ownership.
Classifying production into different economic sectors
Economies vary dramatically, they can be classified into four broad sectors:
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Employment can also be classified as either formal or informal.
In LEDCs there tends to be a higher proportion of people who are employed in informal jobs, whereas in MEDCs most people are employed in formal jobs. |
How employment structure varies over time
EMPLOYMENT STRUCTURE The proportion of people employed in each employment sector within a country.
As a country and its economies develop so to does the proportion of people employed in each sector. In pre-industrial countries, such as Bangladesh, the vast majority of people are employed in the primary sector. This is due to the limited level of technology within these countries, so agriculture, fishing, etc are still very labour intensive. There are few people employed within the secondary sector as many of the raw materials are exported to NICs (newly industrialised countries) where they are processed further.
In industrial countries, such as Malaysia, the majority of people are employed in the secondary industries. This is a result of rapid industrialisation within these countries meaning that many people have left the countryside to seek employment within factors in urban areas. Increased mechanisation of the agricultural process has reduced the number of jobs available within the primary sector. The tertiary sector within these countries is also growing
In post-industrial countries the vast majority of people are employed in the tertiary sector. This is due to greater consumer spending in these countries meaning that more people are required in retail. Also the improved quality of life means that people required more services, such as education and healthcare. The number of people in secondary employment declines as improved technology within manufacturing makes the processes more efficient and less labour intensive.
As a country and its economies develop so to does the proportion of people employed in each sector. In pre-industrial countries, such as Bangladesh, the vast majority of people are employed in the primary sector. This is due to the limited level of technology within these countries, so agriculture, fishing, etc are still very labour intensive. There are few people employed within the secondary sector as many of the raw materials are exported to NICs (newly industrialised countries) where they are processed further.
In industrial countries, such as Malaysia, the majority of people are employed in the secondary industries. This is a result of rapid industrialisation within these countries meaning that many people have left the countryside to seek employment within factors in urban areas. Increased mechanisation of the agricultural process has reduced the number of jobs available within the primary sector. The tertiary sector within these countries is also growing
In post-industrial countries the vast majority of people are employed in the tertiary sector. This is due to greater consumer spending in these countries meaning that more people are required in retail. Also the improved quality of life means that people required more services, such as education and healthcare. The number of people in secondary employment declines as improved technology within manufacturing makes the processes more efficient and less labour intensive.
Globalisation
Globalisation is the increasing interconnectedness and interdependence of the world, economically, politically and culturally. This means that in many cases borders are not the obstacles that they once were in the past, instead goods and services flow much more freely.
As the world became more globalised the economy adapted to these changes. One of these adaptations was the development of Transnational Corporations (TNCs). These are firms that own or control productive operations in more tan one country, usually through foreign direct investment. TNCs will exploit raw materials and cheap labour in LEDCs to maximise profit margins. This shift in industry to developing countries has led to the emergence of newly industrialised countries, such as India.
TNCs have a large impact on the global economy as they play a role in world trade.
As the world became more globalised the economy adapted to these changes. One of these adaptations was the development of Transnational Corporations (TNCs). These are firms that own or control productive operations in more tan one country, usually through foreign direct investment. TNCs will exploit raw materials and cheap labour in LEDCs to maximise profit margins. This shift in industry to developing countries has led to the emergence of newly industrialised countries, such as India.
TNCs have a large impact on the global economy as they play a role in world trade.
Agricultural systems
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Industrial systems
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REVISION
INDUSTRY REVISION - Olivia & Zara
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INDUSTRY REVISION -
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Industry
Industry is any business or commercial activity and includes everything from fishing to house building. Due to the broad nature of industry it is necessary to divide industrial activities into four smaller categories.
- PRIMARY INDUSTRIES the extraction of raw material from the land e.g. farming and fishing
- SECONDARY INDUSTRIES the manufacturing of the raw materials into a finished good e.g. car building and food processing
- TERTIARY INDUSTRIES the provision of services e.g. teaching and retail
- QUATERNARY INDUSTRIES the generation of hi-tech knowledge and research e.g. medical research or computer design
- INPUTS which are things that are needed to manufacture or create a product. These could be physical or human.
- PROCESSES are the activities that take place to make a product
- OUTPUTS the finished product is then sold to the consumer
location of industry
HUMAN FACTORS
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physical factors
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Leisure activities and tourism
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The Growth of Tourism
Tourism is defined as travel away from the home environment for leisure, recreation and holidays, to visit friends and relations, and for business and professional reasons. Over the last 50 years tourism has developed into one of the major global industries and is continuing to expand.
Tourism develops in response to the main attractions of the physical and human landscape. It began in the early 17th century when doctors would prescribe visits to spas, such as Bath and Tunbridge Wells, to seek the benefits of mineral waters. By the end of the 18th century there were hundreds of spas throughout the UK. Next followed the emergence and growth of seaside resorts. The Industrial Revolution resulted in the masses receiving annual holidays, which brought about huge economic and social changes.
In 1841 Thomas Cook launched the first package tours, which took people from Leicester to Loughborough. This coincided with growth of a middle-class with more expendable incomes and recreation time. This led to package tours extending into other countries. There was a growing interest in human landscape, especially european cities like Rome and Paris.
However, the greatest developments in the tourism industry have occurred since the end of the Second World War following the growth in leisure time, affluence and mobility. Tourism then grew exponentially following the introduction of commercial flights in 1970. In 1970 there were 307 million people using scheduled flights, this number has grown to 2.9 billion by 2012.
Tourism develops in response to the main attractions of the physical and human landscape. It began in the early 17th century when doctors would prescribe visits to spas, such as Bath and Tunbridge Wells, to seek the benefits of mineral waters. By the end of the 18th century there were hundreds of spas throughout the UK. Next followed the emergence and growth of seaside resorts. The Industrial Revolution resulted in the masses receiving annual holidays, which brought about huge economic and social changes.
In 1841 Thomas Cook launched the first package tours, which took people from Leicester to Loughborough. This coincided with growth of a middle-class with more expendable incomes and recreation time. This led to package tours extending into other countries. There was a growing interest in human landscape, especially european cities like Rome and Paris.
However, the greatest developments in the tourism industry have occurred since the end of the Second World War following the growth in leisure time, affluence and mobility. Tourism then grew exponentially following the introduction of commercial flights in 1970. In 1970 there were 307 million people using scheduled flights, this number has grown to 2.9 billion by 2012.
Reasons for the growth of tourism
More and more people are now aware of the attractions of the both the physical and human landscapes in their home country and globally. The reasons for the growing number of tourist can be classified as economic, social and political.
ECONOMIC
ECONOMIC
- rising real incomes
- decreasing cost of holidays
- widening range of affordable destinations
- globalisation has resulted in a greater number of business trips
- widespread marketing of city and weekend breaks
- expansion of budget airlines
- ‘air miles’ and other reward schemes
- international migration means that many people travel to visit family and friends
- increase in the amount of paid holiday leave
- greater desire to experience different cultures and landscapes
- greater media coverage of holidays, travel and nature
- many governments have invested heavily in tourism
- government support of global events such as the Olympics and World Cup
Recent Trends
By 2012 the number of international tourists had exceeded 1 billion for the first time ever. This growth has been dramatic as in 1950 there were only 25 million international tourists. The WTO predict that the number of tourists will increase to 1.8 billion by 2030. In 2012 international tourism generated $1075 billion which accounts for 9% of the global GDP and one in eleven jobs.
Europe remains as the top region in terms of both tourist arrivals and tourist receipts. Although the developed world still dominates the tourism industry, emerging industries have shown rapid growth in recent decades.
Seasonality is a major problem with relying on tourism as a main source of employment, as it can have a major impact on incomes and quality of life during low season.
Europe remains as the top region in terms of both tourist arrivals and tourist receipts. Although the developed world still dominates the tourism industry, emerging industries have shown rapid growth in recent decades.
Seasonality is a major problem with relying on tourism as a main source of employment, as it can have a major impact on incomes and quality of life during low season.
Impacts of tourism on the RECEIVING country
ECONOMIC IMPACTS
Many countries, at various stages of development, have invested heavily in tourism. This money is normally invested in hotels, infrastructure, airports and attractions. Although the majority of people believed that this initial cost is offset by the benefits gained from increased tourist numbers, some still believed that the cost outweighs the potential benefits. Supporters of tourism believe the following:
The traditional cultures of many communities around the world have suffered due to the development of tourism. Tourism can result in many disadvantages, such as:
Many countries, at various stages of development, have invested heavily in tourism. This money is normally invested in hotels, infrastructure, airports and attractions. Although the majority of people believed that this initial cost is offset by the benefits gained from increased tourist numbers, some still believed that the cost outweighs the potential benefits. Supporters of tourism believe the following:
- Tourism brings valuable foreign currency, making it possible for countries to import goods and services from abroad. Many small, developing nations have few resources that they can exploit.
- Tourism benefits several economic sectors, as it provides job throughout the supply chain. It can trigger the process of cumulative causation (domino effect).
- Provides tax revenues to the government, which they can then invest in education, healthcare, etc.
- If it increases the amount of rural employment it can then reduce urbanisation (rural-urban migration) which is a problem in many developing countries.
- Can act as a growth pole, stimulating the economy.
- Can create opportunities for small, specialist businesses such as taxi firms, cafes, water sport companies, etc.
- It supports many jobs within the informal sector, which plays a huge role in the economy of many countries.
- Many of the large tourism companies are based in the developed world. Therefore many developing nations suffer from financial leakage, where the vast majority of the money does not stay within the developing nations but leaks out back to the developed countries.
- Tourism is very labour intensive, however, most of the jobs created are menial, low paid and seasonal.
- Many countries increase their national debt borrowing money to invest in the necessary infrastructure.
- Some destinations opt to spend a large percentage of their budget on tourism infrastructure which may offer little benefit to the local population.
- It might not be the best use of the local resources.
- Locations can become overly dependent on tourism, which then creates big problems if tourist numbers decline.
- Tourist operations, such as hotels, place a huge demand on the local resources which may then impinge on the needs of local people, e.g. one 5-star hotel in Goa consumes as much water as five local villages and one hotel resident uses 28 times as much electricity per day as a local person.
The traditional cultures of many communities around the world have suffered due to the development of tourism. Tourism can result in many disadvantages, such as:
- The loss of locally owned land as tourism TNCs buy up large areas of land, especially land in the most accessible and scenic locations.
- The abandonment of traditional values and practices.
- Displacement of people.
- Changes to the community structure.
- Large companies and governments often abuse human rights in a quest to maximise profit margins.
- Alcoholism and drug abuse rise, as drink and drugs become more readily available to meet the demands of foreign tourists.
- Crime and prostitution rise to meet the demands of foreign tourists, e.g. Bangkok have real issues with ‘sex-tourism’.
- Local people may be denied access to beaches to provide ‘exclusivity’ to tourists.
- Loss of housing for local people as more visitors buy second homes in popular tourist areas.
- Can increase the range of social facilities available to the local community.
- Can lead to a greater cultural understanding between different groups.
- Visiting historical sites can lead to a greater appreciation of the history of countries.
- Can help develop foreign language skills in host communities.
- May encourage migration to major tourist generating countries.
Managing tourism and sustainable tourism
The tourism industry has now grown so large in some parts of the world that it is only able to continue with careful management. For this reason many of the worlds most popular destinations are now looking towards sustainable tourism as an objective. Sustainable tourism is tourism organised in such a way that its level can be sustained in the future without creating irreparable environmental, social and economic damage to the receiving area.
As the tourism industry continues to grow rapidly it is now crucial that it is responsibly planned, managed and monitored. At present only 5% of people have ever travelled by plane, but this number is undoubtedly going to increase substantially, placing even greater pressure on the worlds resources.
Many environmental groups are now very keen to make tourists aware of their destination footprint, which is the environmental impact caused by an individual in a particular destination. They are now urging people to:
Ecotourism is leading the way in reducing the environmental impacts of tourism. It is a specialised form of tourism where people experience relatively untouched natural environments and ensure that their presence does no further damage to these environments.
As the tourism industry continues to grow rapidly it is now crucial that it is responsibly planned, managed and monitored. At present only 5% of people have ever travelled by plane, but this number is undoubtedly going to increase substantially, placing even greater pressure on the worlds resources.
Many environmental groups are now very keen to make tourists aware of their destination footprint, which is the environmental impact caused by an individual in a particular destination. They are now urging people to:
- ‘fly less and stay longer’
- carbon-offset their flights
- consider ‘slow travel’
Ecotourism is leading the way in reducing the environmental impacts of tourism. It is a specialised form of tourism where people experience relatively untouched natural environments and ensure that their presence does no further damage to these environments.
ECOTOURISM IN ECUADOR
Ecuador has adopted a tourism strategy whereby they are aiming to become a destination based on ‘exclusivity’ and ‘quality’, rather than catering to the mass market. They are also aiming to be as eco-friendly as possible. Ecotourism has allowed some of the poorest regions of Ecuador to develop their economies whilst reducing the pressure on ecologically sensitive areas.
The main ecotourism destination has been that of Tena in the Amazon Rainforest, where the Quichua people have developed a series of rules which visitors must adhere to.
PROTECTED AREAS
Over the last 130 years many of the world’s most ecologically sensitive areas have been designated for protection. The world’s first National Park was established at Yellowstone in 1872 and there are now over a thousand worldwide. Many countries now have National Forests, Country Parks, Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty, World Heritage Sites and other protected areas.
Protecting areas often brings with it a lot of controversy, especially in regions where regions where large proportions of population rely on jobs such as mining , forestry and tourism. Often a decision has to be made whether to preserve or conserve. As preservation is maintaining the location exactly as it is and not allowing further development. Whereas conservation allows development that does not damage the character of a location.
TOURIST HUBS
The idea of a tourism hub is to concentrate tourism and its impacts in one particular area so that the negative impacts are not felt across the country. Benidorm in Spain is an example of where this model was adopted, but shows how it is difficult to confine tourism to particular areas.
Ecuador has adopted a tourism strategy whereby they are aiming to become a destination based on ‘exclusivity’ and ‘quality’, rather than catering to the mass market. They are also aiming to be as eco-friendly as possible. Ecotourism has allowed some of the poorest regions of Ecuador to develop their economies whilst reducing the pressure on ecologically sensitive areas.
The main ecotourism destination has been that of Tena in the Amazon Rainforest, where the Quichua people have developed a series of rules which visitors must adhere to.
- All rubbish must be taken away by visitors.
- Exchanges of clothing or personal items with community members are not allowed.
- Do not enter people’s houses without being invited in.
- Avoid any displays of affection, even with close friends, as this is considered rude.
- When walking in the rainforest do not touch or pull branches
PROTECTED AREAS
Over the last 130 years many of the world’s most ecologically sensitive areas have been designated for protection. The world’s first National Park was established at Yellowstone in 1872 and there are now over a thousand worldwide. Many countries now have National Forests, Country Parks, Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty, World Heritage Sites and other protected areas.
Protecting areas often brings with it a lot of controversy, especially in regions where regions where large proportions of population rely on jobs such as mining , forestry and tourism. Often a decision has to be made whether to preserve or conserve. As preservation is maintaining the location exactly as it is and not allowing further development. Whereas conservation allows development that does not damage the character of a location.
TOURIST HUBS
The idea of a tourism hub is to concentrate tourism and its impacts in one particular area so that the negative impacts are not felt across the country. Benidorm in Spain is an example of where this model was adopted, but shows how it is difficult to confine tourism to particular areas.
Energy and water resources
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REVISION
ENERGY REVISION - Jordan-Louise & Bradley
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ENERGY REVISION -
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ENERGYEnergy can be categorised as either renewable or non-renewable.
Whilst fuelwood continues to be the predominant energy source in traditional less developed countries, many countries are now experiencing a shift towards fossil fuels. Emerging economies have greater economic power so can afford to buy raw materials and build power stations. Most opt to build fossil fuel power stations because the technology is easily accessible and widely available. However, as countries develop further their sources of energy may change again. Whilst they will continue to be heavily reliant on fossil fuels, they will begin to use more renewable energy sources, especially nuclear power. This is normally because of:
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NON-RENEWABLE Energy sources
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RENEWABLE ENERGY
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Where to build a thermal power station?
One of the big decisions many countries have to face is where to build their power stations. Whilst they could be built anywhere there are certain environmental factors which make their construction easier and more convenient.
TRANSPORTATION NETWORK you want easy access to transportation routes so you can transport resources, such as coal, to the power stations easily
CLOSE TO URBAN AREAS you want to be close to urban areas so that it is cheap and easy to transfer electricity to people NOT TOO CLOSE TO URBAN AREAS whilst it is important to be close to urban areas you do not want to be too close so people do not suffer from increased levels of pollution |
NEAR TO RIVERS water is essential to generating electircity from fossil fuels, so you need to be close to a large supply
FLAT LAND it is easier to build on flat land, so this will reduce construction costs LARGE AREA power stations require large areas of land NO TECTONIC ACTIVITY even minor earthquakes can damage power stations so they need to be away from plate margins |
Nuclear energy
Nuclear power is considered by some to be a renewable energy source, however, as it relies on uranium, which is a finite resource, it can also be considered as non-renewable energy source. Nuclear power currently accounts for 14% of the world's electricity (6% of its energy). There are 439 nuclear power stations in 31 countries, but Japan, USA and France combined produce 50% of the world's nuclear power.
It is a highly controversial energy source due to concerns over its safety. Some see it as the only true solution to declining fossil fuels, whilst others worry about the waste produces, the technology falling into the wrong hands and the possibility of catastrophic accidents.
The largest nuclear incidents to date were that of Chernobyl (Ukraine) in 1986 and Fukushima (Japan) in 2011. The Japanese disaster was the result of a large tsunami, triggered by an earthquake, which hit the power station breaking the generators and flooding the emergency generators. They were therefore unable to pump water into the reactors to cool them resulting in a meltdown of three reactors. The result of the disaster has been contamination of the land and sea near the plant and the enforcement of a 20km exclusion zone. Japan as a result has planned to reduce their reliance on nuclear power and look for new alternatives.
All countries have the right to develop nuclear power but many have signed the 'Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty', which forbids the development of nuclear weapons.
It is a highly controversial energy source due to concerns over its safety. Some see it as the only true solution to declining fossil fuels, whilst others worry about the waste produces, the technology falling into the wrong hands and the possibility of catastrophic accidents.
The largest nuclear incidents to date were that of Chernobyl (Ukraine) in 1986 and Fukushima (Japan) in 2011. The Japanese disaster was the result of a large tsunami, triggered by an earthquake, which hit the power station breaking the generators and flooding the emergency generators. They were therefore unable to pump water into the reactors to cool them resulting in a meltdown of three reactors. The result of the disaster has been contamination of the land and sea near the plant and the enforcement of a 20km exclusion zone. Japan as a result has planned to reduce their reliance on nuclear power and look for new alternatives.
All countries have the right to develop nuclear power but many have signed the 'Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty', which forbids the development of nuclear weapons.
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WATER
Although we live on the 'Blue Planet' around 97% of the world's water is saltwater, meaning only 3% is freshwater and potentially useful to humans. However, out of this 3% the vast majority is trapped within icecaps or beneath the ground, meaning only 0.01% of the world's water is useful and easily accessed.
The world's water is also not equally distributed, continents such as North America and Asia posses a lot of surface water, where as Australia is more arid, especially towards the centre. Although all regions of the world have a large supply of groundwater, this is much more difficult to access and has to be carefully managed to ensure that stores are not utilised before they can be naturally replaced.
The world's water is also not equally distributed, continents such as North America and Asia posses a lot of surface water, where as Australia is more arid, especially towards the centre. Although all regions of the world have a large supply of groundwater, this is much more difficult to access and has to be carefully managed to ensure that stores are not utilised before they can be naturally replaced.
Water use can be categorised as either agricultural, domestic or industrial. Agriculture is by far the biggest user of water, with the majority being used for irrigation. Agricultural use will continue to rise in order to meet the demands of a growing population. The second largest user of water is household and domestic use. Industry uses large quantities of water in energy production, manufacturing and cooling processes.
Water shortages
The world is facing a potential water shortage, but not all regions are facing the same challenges.
WATER STRESS is when the demand for water exceeds the supply causing temporary water shortages, known as droughts.
ECONOMIC WATER SCARCITY is when there is water available but for economic reasons it is inaccessible or unusable. This may be because it is groundwater, which is expensive to extract, or simply that the water has become polluted and they cannot afford to clean it.
PHYSICAL WATER SCARCITY is when there is not enough water available to meet the demand. This is normally due to climatic reasons (low precipitation rates).
Water stress basically happens when demand exceeds supply and occurs as a result of either growing demand or falling supply.
WATER STRESS is when the demand for water exceeds the supply causing temporary water shortages, known as droughts.
ECONOMIC WATER SCARCITY is when there is water available but for economic reasons it is inaccessible or unusable. This may be because it is groundwater, which is expensive to extract, or simply that the water has become polluted and they cannot afford to clean it.
PHYSICAL WATER SCARCITY is when there is not enough water available to meet the demand. This is normally due to climatic reasons (low precipitation rates).
Water stress basically happens when demand exceeds supply and occurs as a result of either growing demand or falling supply.
Growing demand
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falling supply
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WATER mismanagement: the aral sea
The Aral sea lies on the border between Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan, it was once the fourth largest inland lake on the planet. However, vast quantities of water were removed from the rivers (Amu Darya and Syr Darya) which fed into the sea in order to irrigate the surrounding arid lands to allow for cotton farming. The irrigation canals which were constructed were of poor quality and large volumes of water were lost through leaks, meaning extra water had to be removed from the rivers. The amount of water needed to successfully grown cotton has since proven to be unsustainable and the amount of water reaching the sea has declined dramatically causing the Aral Sea to shrink. The sea has been declining in size since the 1960s and in 2007 it was only 10% of its original size and its salinity had increased to 100 g/l (normal seawater is 35 g/l). The rapid increase in salinity has almost killed the ecosystem within the sea, and the salt remaining on exposed seabeds is carried in the wind and kills nearby crops. The fishing industry collapsed leaving many communities isolated and suffering economic decline.
Pollution: Lake Biwa, Japan
Lake Biwa is the largest freshwater lake in Japan. It is located on the island of Honshu to the north east of large cities of Kyoto and Osaka.
Following World War II the population of Japan began to grow, increasing from 72 million in 1945 to over 128 million in 2010. During this time it was not only the population which grew at a dramatic rate, but also the economy. This period of time is often referred as an 'economic miracle', as it grew at a phenomenal rate of 10% in the 1960s. During this time many of the Japanese brands that we know today, such as Sony, Toyota, Nissan and Toshiba, saw their profits increase. This led to increased competition for land and as such the area around Lake Biwa became one of the most densely populated and industrialised areas of the country. This rapid growth meant that a lot of land reclamation took place around Lake Biwa in order to accommodate new factories, growing cities and meet the demand for agricultural land. During this time economic growth was the main priority and in many cases took place at the cost of the environment. Around Lake Biwa domestic, industrial and agricultural waste was allowed to run-off into the lake. These pollutants caused a series of problems including:
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Future water shortages
This map shows that MEDCs, such as those in North America, Europe and Northern Asia are unlikely to experience water shortages in the near future. This is most likely down to the fact that they have relatively reliable water sources (as a result of their climates) and they have access to the necessary technology needed to access water supplies. Whereas large parts of South America, Africa and SE Asia have very wet rainy seasons, but they are still predicted to experience water shortages. This is because not only is the demand within these countries increasing but also because they do not have the technology or infrastructure to store, transport or treat the quantities of water required. Whilst arid areas, such as Northern Africa, the Middle East and South Asia are likely to experience physical water scarcity.
problems caused by water shortages and water pollution
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possible solutions to water shortages and water pollution
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Environmental risks and benefits: resource conservation and management
WHAT I NEED TO BE ABLE TO :
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greenhouse effect and global warming
The Greenhouse Effect is a natural process which is vital to the existence of mankind. Greenhouse gases help to warm the planet and without them the Earth would be dramatically colder and unable to support life on a large scale. Shortwave radiation from the Sun passes through the atmosphere where it is absorbed and radiated by the Earth. The radiation is in the form of long wave radiation, not all of which escapes back into space. Some is trapped and reflected back by a layer of greenhouse gases. The reflected energy returns to Earth where is it absorbed warming the planet.
The problem with greenhouse gases is than mankind is increasing the concentrations of greenhouse gases within the atmosphere, which then in turn trap more heat creating further warming.
Greenhouse gases are any gases that absorb and emit radiation in the thermal infrared range. They most commonly include carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, methane, sulphur dioxide, nitrous oxide, water vapour and ozone.
Greenhouse gases can be produced in a number of ways:
The problem with greenhouse gases is than mankind is increasing the concentrations of greenhouse gases within the atmosphere, which then in turn trap more heat creating further warming.
Greenhouse gases are any gases that absorb and emit radiation in the thermal infrared range. They most commonly include carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, methane, sulphur dioxide, nitrous oxide, water vapour and ozone.
Greenhouse gases can be produced in a number of ways:
- transportation
- animals (cows produce large amounts of methane)
- burning fossil fuels
- melting permafrost releases methane
- industry
- domestic use
- changes in the Sun’s solar radiation (sunspot theory)
- release of gases into the atmosphere during volcanic eruptions
- changes in the Earth’s orbit and tilt of the axis, changing the distance of the Earth from the Sun (Milankovitch cycles)
problems caused by global warming
- RISING SEA LEVELS rising temperatures are causing glaciers and ice caps to melt, this is adding to the volume of water within the worlds oceans, meaning that sea levels have to rise. This can then cause further problems due to coastal flooding and the loss of land.
- LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY the habitats of many plants and animals are changing due to the warming temperatures experienced. Although some animals will be able to adapt or migrate to new areas, others are likely to face extinction.
- ENVIRONMENTAL REFUGEES some low lying island nations are under threat from rising sea levels, this is placing their inhabitants at risk meaning that many are being forced to leave their homes to seek safety elsewhere.
- CHANGES IN OCEAN CURRENTS the ocean currents are vital in maintaining the climate of many regions as they redistribute heat from the equator towards the poles. There is the possibility that some of these currents, such as the Gulf Stream, may weaken or stop. This could then see the climate of particular regions change dramatically.
- LOSS OF INDUSTRY Coastal industries like tourism and fishing will be effected as sea levels rise, as tourism destinations and fishing communities could be destroyed.
- DROUGHTS AND FAMINES increasing temperatures and declining levels of precipitation can mean than farming is likely to become increasingly difficult. These changes in climate could result in many crops failing, resulting in famine.
- DISEASES rising temperatures could see mosquitos being able to survive in a greater range of environments, meaning that diseases such as malaria are likely to become more widespread and common. Also diseases like skin cancer are also increasing as the global climate changes.
- INCREASED TROPICAL STORMS some scientists believe that warming temperatures are increasing the magnitude and frequency of tropical storms.
- HEAT WAVES rising temperatures are resulting in an increase in the magnitude and frequency of heat waves experienced.
- MELTING PERMAFROST the melting permafrost releases large amount of methane, which is increasing the greenhouse effect, and is also releasing freshwater into the oceans which may affect the ocean currents.
POSITIVE IMPACTS OF GLOBAL WARMING
- IMPROVED ARCTIC NAVIGATION the amount of Arctic ice is declining which is opening up new shipping routes through the Arctic regions, these are much quicker than traditional shipping routes.
- INCREASED AGRICULTURAL LAND melting permafrost is opening up new land to agriculture, which could be vital in providing food to meet the demands of the rising population.
- ACCESSIBILITY OF RESOURCES many scientists believe that there are reserves of fossil fuels under icecaps in Greenland, Alaska, Siberia and Antarctica.
- REDUCED HEATING if global temperatures continue to rise then people will have to spend less on heating within their homes. This will save money but also reduce the demand for energy, reducing the amount of greenhouse gases being emitted into the atmosphere.
- INCREASED TOURISM as global temperatures rise nations, such as the UK, are likely to experience a rise in the income from tourism as people will decide to holiday in the UK rather than going abroad.
- RELEASE OF FRESHWATER the majority of the world's freshwater is trapped in glaciers. With rising temperatures it is likely that some of this freshwater will be release and if captured could be used to reduce some of the effects of droughts.
- REDUCTION IN COLD DEATHS the young and old are especially vulnerable to the cold. Therefore if global temperatures continue to rise then the number of deaths resulting from the cold should decline.
solutions to global warming
There are two potential solutions to global warming, we can either mitigate or adapt.
Mitigation is where you try to reduce the effects of global warming
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Adaptation is where you change your lifestyle to suit the new conditions
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Acid Rain
The idea of Acid Rain was first suggested in 1852 by Robert Angus Smith in Manchester. However, it was not fully understood until the 1960s. It has been discovered that acid rain comes in two forms; wet deposition and dry deposition.
Sulphur dioxide and nitrous oxides are the two main chemicals that react with water to create acid rain. These chemicals are released by factories, power stations and transportation. Traditionally sulphur dioxide has been viewed as the main contributed to acid rain, but in recent decades the importance of nitrous oxides has increased.
- WET DEPOSITION: pollutants mix with rain water and fall as acidic precipitation
- DRY DEPOSITION: pollutants and particles fall to the ground without mixing with rain water, this usually happens close to the source
Sulphur dioxide and nitrous oxides are the two main chemicals that react with water to create acid rain. These chemicals are released by factories, power stations and transportation. Traditionally sulphur dioxide has been viewed as the main contributed to acid rain, but in recent decades the importance of nitrous oxides has increased.
Problems of acid rain
Acid rain can cause many problems including:
- Damage to buildings
- Metals (iron, aluminum, etc.) dissolved by acid rain can be washed into water courses
- Vegetation can be damaged and growth reduced
- Lakes and rivers can become acidic harming the ecosystem and aquatic life
- Soil acidity increases
Tackling acid rain
Acid rain can be reduced by reducing reliance on fossil fuels or burning coal with a lower sulphur content. Many of the methods used to reduce global warming, such as using public transport or renewable energy sources, will also help to reduce the extent of acid rain.